Clarithromycin

Synonyms:A-56268, TE-031, 6-O-methylerythromycin, ATC:J01FA09Use:macrolide antibioticChemical name:6-O-methylerythromycinFormula:C₃₈H₆₉NO₁₃

• MW:747.96 g/mol
• CAS-RN:81103-11-9
• 81103-11-9

klacid XL / Klaricid XL / Macladin / Naxy / Veclam / Zeclar

(3R,4S,5S,6R,7R,9R,11R,12R,13S,14R)-6-{[(2S,3R,4S,6R)-4-(dimethylamino)-3-hydroxy-6-methyloxan-2-yl]oxy}-14-ethyl-12,13-dihydroxy-4-{[(2R,4R,5S,6S)-5-hydroxy-4-methoxy-4,6-dimethyloxan-2-yl]oxy}-7-methoxy-3,5,7,9,11,13-hexamethyl-1-oxacyclotetradecane-2,10-dione

Synthesis Reference

Jih-Hua Liu, David A. Riley, “Preparation of crystal form II of clarithromycin.” U.S. Patent US5844105, issued May, 1997. US5844105

Product Ingredients

 ClarithromycinCAS Registry Number: 81103-11-9CAS Name: 6-O-MethylerythromycinManufacturers’ Codes: A-56268; TE-031Trademarks: Biaxin (Abbott); Clarosip (Grñenthal); Clathromycin (Taisho); Cyllind (Abbott); Klacid (Abbott); Klaricid (Abbott); Macladin (Guidotti); Naxy (Sanofi Winthrop); Veclam (Zambon); Zeclar (Abbott)Molecular Formula: C38H69NO13Molecular Weight: 747.95Percent Composition: C 61.02%, H 9.30%, N 1.87%, O 27.81%Literature References: Semisynthetic macrolide antibiotic; derivative of erythromycin, q.v. Prepn: Y. Watanabe et al.,EP41355; eidem,US4331803 (1981, 1982 both to Taisho); and in vitro antibacterial activity: S. Morimoto et al.,J. Antibiot.37, 187 (1984). In vitro and in vivo antibacterial activity: P. B. Fernandes et al.,Antimicrob. Agents Chemother.30, 865 (1986). Comparative antibacterial spectrum in vitro: C. Benson et al.,Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol.6, 173 (1987); H. M. Wexler, S. M. Finegold, ibid. 492. HPLC determn in biological fluids: D. Croteau et al.,J. Chromatogr.419, 205 (1987); in plasma: H. Amini, A. Ahmadiani, J. Chromatogr. B817, 193 (2005). Acute toxicity study: S. Abe et al.,Chemotherapy (Tokyo)36, Suppl. 3, 274 (1988). Symposium on pharmacology and comparative clinical studies: J. Antimicrob. Chemother.27, Suppl. A, 1-124 (1991). Comprehensive description: I. I. Salem, Anal. Profiles Drug Subs. Excip.24, 45-85, (1996).Properties: Colorless needles from chloroform + diisopropyl ether (1:2), mp 217-220° (dec). Also reported as crystals from ethanol, mp 222-225° (Morimoto). uv max (CHCl3): 288 nm (e 27.9). uv max (CHCl3): 240, 288 nm; (methanol): 211, 288 nm. [a]D24 -90.4° (c = 1 in CHCl3). Stable at acidic pH. LD50 in male, female mice, male, female rats (mg/kg): 2740, 2700, 3470, 2700 orally, 1030, 850, 669, 753 i.p., >5000 all s.c. (Abe).Melting point: mp 217-220° (dec); mp 222-225° (Morimoto)Optical Rotation: [a]D24 -90.4° (c = 1 in CHCl3)Absorption maximum: uv max (CHCl3): 288 nm (e 27.9). uv max (CHCl3): 240, 288 nmToxicity data: LD50 in male, female mice, male, female rats (mg/kg): 2740, 2700, 3470, 2700 orally, 1030, 850, 669, 753 i.p., >5000 all s.c. (Abe)Therap-Cat: Antibacterial.Keywords: Antibacterial (Antibiotics); Macrolides.

Clarithromycin, a semisynthetic macrolide antibiotic derived from erythromycin, inhibits bacterial protein synthesis by binding to the bacterial 50S ribosomal subunit. Binding inhibits peptidyl transferase activity and interferes with amino acid translocation during the translation and protein assembly process. Clarithromycin may be bacteriostatic or bactericidal depending on the organism and drug concentration.

Clarithromycin, sold under the brand name Biaxin among others, is an antibiotic used to treat various bacterial infections.^[2] This includes strep throat, pneumonia, skin infections, H. pylori infection, and Lyme disease, among others.^[2] Clarithromycin can be taken by mouth as a pill or liquid.^[2]

Common side effects include nausea, vomiting, headaches, and diarrhea.^[2] Severe allergic reactions are rare.^[2] Liver problems have been reported.^[2] It may cause harm if taken during pregnancy.^[2] It is in the macrolide class and works by decreasing protein production of some bacteria.^[2]

Clarithromycin was developed in 1980 and approved for medical use in 1990.^[3][4] It is on the World Health Organization’s List of Essential Medicines, the safest and most effective medicines needed in a health system.^[5] Clarithromycin is available as a generic medication.^[2] It is made from erythromycin and is chemically known as 6-O-methylerythromycin.^[6]

Medical uses

Clarithromycin is primarily used to treat a number of bacterial infections including pneumonia, Helicobacter pylori, and as an alternative to penicillin in strep throat.^[2] Other uses include cat scratch disease and other infections due to bartonella, cryptosporidiosis, as a second line agent in Lyme disease and toxoplasmosis.^[2] It may also be used to prevent bacterial endocarditis in those who cannot take penicillin.^[2] It is effective against upper and lower respiratory tract infections, skin and soft tissue infections and helicobacter pylori infections associated with duodenal ulcers.

Spectrum of bacterial susceptibility

Staphylococcus aureusAerobic Gram-positive bacteria

• Streptococcus pneumoniae
• Streptococcus pyogenes

Aerobic Gram-negative bacteria

• Haemophilus parainfluenzae
• Haemophilus influenzae
• Moraxella catarrhalis

Helicobacter

• Helicobacter pylori

Mycobacteria

Mycobacterium avium complex consisting of:

• Mycobacterium avium avium
• Mycobacterium intracellulare

Other bacteria

• Chlamydia pneumoniae
• Mycoplasma pneumoniae

Safety and effectiveness of clarithromycin in treating clinical infections due to the following bacteria have not been established in adequate and well-controlled clinical trials:^[7]

Aerobic Gram-positive bacteria

• Streptococcus agalactiae
• Streptococcus (Groups C, F, G)
• Viridans group streptococci

Aerobic Gram-negative bacteria

• Bordetella pertussis
• Legionella pneumophila
• Pasteurella multocida

Anaerobic Gram-positive bacteria

• Clostridium perfringens
• Peptococcus Niger
• Cutibacterium acnes

Anaerobic Gram-negative bacteria

• Prevotella melaninogenica (formerly Bacteroides melaninogenicus)

Contraindications

• Clarithromycin should not be taken by people who are allergic to other macrolides or inactive ingredients in the tablets, including microcrystalline cellulose, croscarmelose sodium, magnesium stearate, and povidone
• Clarithromycin should not be used by people with a history of cholestatic jaundice and/or liver dysfunction associated with prior clarithromycin use.^[7]
• Clarithromycin should not be used in the setting of hypokalaemia (low blood potassium)
• Use of clarithromycin with the following medications: cisapride, pimozide, astemizole, terfenadine, ergotamine, ticagrelor, ranolazine or dihydroergotamine is not recommended.^[7]
• It should not be used with colchicine in people with kidney or liver impairment.^[7]
• Concomitant use with cholesterol medications such as lovastatin or simvastatin.^[7]
• Hypersensitivity to clarithromycin or any component of the product, erythromycin, or any macrolide antibiotics.^[7]
• QT prolongation or ventricular cardiac arrhythmias, including torsade de pointes.^[7]

Side effects

The most common side effects are gastrointestinal: diarrhea (3%), nausea (3%), abdominal pain (3%), and vomiting (6%). It also can cause headaches, insomnia, and abnormal liver function tests. Allergic reactions include rashes and anaphylaxis. Less common side effects (<1%) include extreme irritability, hallucinations (auditory and visual), dizziness/motion sickness, and alteration in senses of smell and taste, including a metallic taste. Dry mouth, panic attacks, and nightmares have also been reported, albeit less frequently.^[8]

Cardiac

In February 2018, the FDA issued a Safety Communication warning with respect to an increased risk for heart problems or death with the use of clarithromycin, and has recommended that alternative antibiotics be considered in those with heart disease.^[9]

Clarithromycin can lead to a prolonged QT interval. In patients with long QT syndrome, cardiac disease, or patients taking other QT-prolonging medications, this can increase risk for life-threatening arrhythmias.^[10]

In one trial, the use of short-term clarithromycin treatment was correlated with an increased incidence of deaths classified as sudden cardiac deaths in stable coronary heart disease patients not using statins.^[11] Some case reports suspect it of causing liver disease.^[12]

Liver and kidney

Clarithromycin has been known to cause jaundice, cirrhosis, and kidney problems, including kidney failure.^{[citation needed]}

Central nervous system

Common adverse effects of clarithromycin in the central nervous system include dizziness, headaches. Rarely, it can cause ototoxicity, delirium and mania.

Infection

A risk of oral candidiasis and vaginal candidiasis, due to the elimination of the yeast’s natural bacterial competitors by the antibiotic, has also been noted.

Pregnancy and breastfeeding

Clarithromycin should not be used in pregnant women except in situations where no alternative therapy is appropriate.^[7] Clarithromycin can cause potential hazard to the fetus hence should be used during pregnancy only if the potential benefit justifies the potential risk to the fetus.^[7] For lactating mothers it is not known whether clarithromycin is excreted in human milk.^[7]

Interactions

Clarithromycin inhibits a liver enzyme, CYP3A4, involved in the metabolism of many other commonly prescribed drugs. Taking clarithromycin with other medications that are metabolized by CYP3A4 may lead to unexpected increases or decreases in drug levels.

A few of the common interactions are listed below.

Colchicine

Clarithromycin has been observed to have a dangerous interaction with colchicine as the result of inhibition of CYP3A4 metabolism and P-glycoprotein transport. Combining these two drugs may lead to fatal colchicine toxicity, particularly in people with chronic kidney disease.^[7]

Statins

Taking clarithromycin concurrently with certain statins (a class of drugs used to reduce blood serum cholesterol levels) increases the risk of side effects, such as muscle aches and muscle break down (rhabdomyolysis).^[13]

Calcium channel blockers

Concurrent therapy with calcium channel blocker may increase risk of low blood pressure, kidney failure, and death, compared to pairing calcium channel blockers with azithromycin, a drug similar to clarithromycin but without CYP3A4 inhibition.^[14] Administration of clarithromycin in combination with verapamil have been observed to cause low blood pressure, low heart rate, and lactic acidosis.^[7]

Carbamazepine

Clarithromycin may double the level of carbamazepine in the body by reducing its clearance, which may lead to toxic symptoms of carbamazepine, such as double vision, loss of voluntary body movement, nausea, as well as hyponatremia.^[15]

HIV medications

Depending on the combination of medications, clarithromycin therapy could be contraindicated, require changing doses of some medications, or be acceptable without dose adjustments.^[16] For example, clarithromycin may lead to decreased zidovudine concentrations.^[17]

Mechanism of action

Clarithromycin prevents bacteria from multiplying by acting as a protein synthesis inhibitor. It binds to 23S rRNA, a component of the 50S subunit of the bacterial ribosome, thus inhibiting the translation of peptides.^{[citation needed]}

Pharmacokinetics

MetabolismUnlike erythromycin, clarithromycin is acid-stable, so can be taken orally without having to be protected from gastric acids. It is readily absorbed, and diffuses into most tissues and phagocytes. Due to the high concentration in phagocytes, clarithromycin is actively transported to the site of infection. During active phagocytosis, large concentrations of clarithromycin are released; its concentration in the tissues can be over 10 times higher than in plasma. Highest concentrations are found in liver, lung tissue, and stool.

Clarithromycin has a fairly rapid first-pass metabolism in the liver. Its major metabolites include an inactive metabolite, N-desmethylclarithromycin, and an active metabolite, 14-(R)-hydroxyclarithromycin. Compared to clarithromycin, 14-(R)-hydroxyclarithromycin is less potent against mycobacterial tuberculosis and the Mycobacterium avium complex. Clarithromycin (20%-40%) and its active metabolite (10%-15%) are excreted in urine. Of all the drugs in its class, clarithromycin has the best bioavailability at 50%, which makes it amenable to oral administration. Its elimination half-life is about 3 to 4 hours with 250 mg administered every 12 h, but increased to 5 to 7 h with 500 mg administered every 8 to 12 h. With any of these dosing regimens, the steady-state concentration of this metabolite is generally attained within 3 to 4 days.^[18]

History

Clarithromycin was invented by researchers at the Japanese drug company Taisho Pharmaceutical in 1980.^[3] The product emerged through efforts to develop a version of the antibiotic erythromycin that did not experience acid instability in the digestive tract, causing side effects, such as nausea and stomachache. Taisho filed for patent protection for the drug around 1980 and subsequently introduced a branded version of its drug, called Clarith, to the Japanese market in 1991. In 1985, Taisho partnered with the American company Abbott Laboratories for the international rights, and Abbott also gained FDA approval for Biaxin in October 1991. The drug went generic in Europe in 2004 and in the US in mid-2005.

Society and culture

A pack of Clarithromycin tablets manufactured by Taisho Pharmaceutical

Available forms

Clarithromycin is available as a generic medication.^[2] In the United States, clarithromycin is available as immediate release tablets, extended release tablets, and granules for oral suspension.^[2]

Brand names

Clarithromycin is available under several brand names in many different countries, for example Biaxin, Crixan, Claritron, Clarihexal, Clacid, Claritt, Clacee, Clarac, Clariwin, Claripen, Clarem, Claridar, Cloff, Fromilid, Infex, Kalixocin, Karicin, Klaricid, Klaridex, Klacid, Klaram, Klabax, MegaKlar, Monoclar, Resclar, Rithmo, Truclar, Vikrol and Zeclar.

Manufacturers

In the UK the drug product is manufactured in generic form by a number of manufacturers including Somex Pharma, Ranbaxy, Aptil and Sandoz.

SYN

CN 109705180

SYN

Indian Pat. Appl., 2014DE00731, 31 Aug 2016

SYN

Heterocycles, 31(12), 2121-4; 1990

SYN

https://patents.google.com/patent/WO2006064299A1/enErythromycin A is known to be a useful macrolide antibiotic having a strong activity against Gram-positive bacteria, this compound has an undesirable property that it loses rapidly the antibacterial activity by the acid in stomach when administered orally, where- upon its blood concentration remains at a low level. 6-0-Alkyl derivatives of Erythromycin- A are well known as an useful antibacterial agents. 6-O-Methyl-Erythromycin-A (Clarithromycin) and a pharmaceutically acceptable salt is a potent macrolide antibiotic as reported in US Patent No. 4,331 ,803. Clarithromycin is stable in acidic medium and also remarkable in vivo activity and has a strong antibacterial property against Gram-positive bacteria compared to Erythromycin- A. This compound shows excellent effect for the treatment of infections by oral administration.A number of synthetic processes have been reported for preparing 6-O-alkyl erythromycin. US Patent No. 4,331 ,803 discloses a method for the preparation of Clarithromycin by methylating 6-OH group of 2′-O-3′-N-benzyloxycarbonyl erythromycinFormula (III)

2¹,3′-O-Protected ErythromycinMethylation of 6-OH group of the 2′,3′-benzyloxycarbonyl erythromycin was carried out using methyl iodide in the presence of a suitable base in a solvent. Clarithromycin was obtained from the compound after removing benzyloxycarbonyl group by hydrogenolysis and then subjecting to the reductive methylation in the presence of excess amount of farmaldehyde. Clarithromycin can also be synthesized by the methylation of 6-OH position of Erythromycin-A-9-OximeFormula (II)

Erythromycin-9-OximeSynthesis of Clarithromycin using 9-oxime or its derivatives are well reported in US Patent Nos. 5,274,085; 4,680,386; 4,668,776; 4,670,549 and 4,672,109. In case of Erythromycin-9-Oxime derivatives, the oxime is protected before methylation step with 2- alkenyl group (US Patent Nos. 4,670,549; 4,668,776) or benzyl group (US Patent Nos. 4,680,386 and 4,670,549). However, it has been reported (Ref. Journal of Antibiotics 46, No. 6, Page No. 647, year 1993) that when the Erythromycin-A-9-Oxime is protected by trimethylsilyl group, which is very unstable under basic condition pose potential impurities formation during methylation. There are some methods reported in US Patent Nos., e.g. , 4,680,386; 4,670,549 and US Patent No. 4,311,803 for the synthesis of Clarithromycin by using chlorobenzyloxycarbonyl group for protection at 2′ and 3′ function of of Erythromycin-A-9-Oxime derivatives.For the protection of 2′-OH group (US Patent No. 4,311 ,803) requires large amounts of benzyl chloroformate which poses problems in handling because of its severe irritating and toxic properties. This protection step also leads to the formation of 3′ -N- demethylation, which requires an additional re-methylation step. The de-protection of chlorobenzyloxy carbonyl group leads to the formation of undesired side products. In earlier reported processes, e.g. , US Patent No. 4,990,602; EP 0,272,110 Al where the methylation has been done on Erythromycin-A-9-Oxime derivatives by the protection of 2′ and 4″ hydroxyl groups using DMSO and THF as a solvent at 0° to 5⁰C or at room temperature, smooth methylation takes place with less side product formation. However, by using the above methylation processes the formation of 6, 11-O-dimethyl erythromycin- A (Compound- A) is always more than 1.0 % in Clarithromycin. Hence, there is a need for an efficient methylation process for the production of Clarithromycin with lesser amount of 6,11-O-dimethyl erythromycin-A than reported previously.

EXAMPLE 1Erythromycin-A-9-OximeTo a solution of 201 Ltr water in 561 Kg isopropyl alcohol is added 282 Kg (4057 mol) of hydroxyl amine hydrochloride under stirring and the reaction mixture is brought to 10 to 20⁰C. Caustic flakes (162 Kg, 4050 mol) is added slowly to the reaction mixture by keeping temperature between 10° to 20⁰C. After 15 minutes of completion of addition, pH of reaction mixture is adjusted to 6.5 to 7.0 by the slow addition of glacial acetic acid (96 Ltr, 100.8 Kg, 1678.6 mole). To the stirred reaction mass is added 300 Kg (408.8 mole) of Erythromycin-A base and reaction mixture is stirred at 55° C for 28 hours. After completion of the reaction, mixture is brought to ambient temperature and to it a mixture of ammonia solution (270 Kg) and water (600 Ltr) is added within 1 hour followed by 3000 Ltr of fresh water in next two hours and stirred the reaction mass for further 1 hour. White solid product obtained is centrifuged, wet cake is washed with water and dried at 6O⁰C for 12 hours to give 270 Kg of erythromycin-A Oxime. Melting point = 156° to 158°C.EXAMPLE 22′,4″-O-Bis(trimethylsilyl)-erythro?nycin-A-9[O-(l-methoxy-l-methyl ethyl)oximeTo a solution of 80 Kg (106.8 mole) of Erythromycin-A-9-Oxime in 400 Ltr of dichloromethane is added 38.50 Kg (534 mole) of 2-methoxy propene at 10⁰C temperature 19.25 Kg (166.6 mole) of pyridine hydrochloride is added under stirring and the reaction mixture is stirred at 8 to 12° C for 6 hours then to it is added 19.30 Kg (119.5 mole) of HMDS and stirring is continued for 12 to 15 hours at 15° to 18°C temperature. After completion of reaction, 400 Ltr of saturated aqueous sodium carbonate solution is added and the mixture is stirred thoroughly at room temperature. Aqueous layer is further extracted with fresh DCM (100 Ltr). Both DCM extracts are mixed together and washed with water (200 Ltr) followed by brine solution (200 Ltr). The solvent is evaporated under reduced pressure. To the obtained crude solid mass is charged isopropyl alcohol (240 Ltr) and distilled out 80 Ltr of isopropyl alcohol. To the reaction mixture 160 Ltr of water is charged and stirring continued at room temperature for 1 hour. Solid crystalline product obtained is centrifuged and dried at 60° to 65⁰C for 8 hours under vacuum to give 85 Kg of title compound. Melting point = 125° to 126°C. HPLC Purity = More than 90 % .EXAMPLE 3Clarithromycin-9- OximeTo a solution of 80 Kg (82.98 mole) of 2′,4″-O-bis(trimethylsilyl)-erythromycin-A- 9-[O-(l-methoxy methyl ethyl)Oxime] in 1200 Ltr of a mixture of dimethyl sulfoxide and diethylether (1 : 1) are added methyl iodide (20.62 Kg, 145.2 mole) and 6.48 Kg (98.35 mole) of 85 % potassium hydroxide powder and the reaction mixture is stirred for 90 minutes at room temperature. To the reaction mass is added 53 Kg of 40 % dimethylamine solution and stirring is continued for 1 hour diethylether layer is separated and DMSO layer is further extracted with fresh diethylether (200 Ltr). Combined ether layer is washed with water and concentrated in vacuum. To the obtained semi solid mass 330 Ltr of isopropyl alcohol is charged and then distilled out 165 Ltr of isopropyl alcohol. To the obtained slurry 165 Ltr of water and 21.71 Kg formic acid (99%) are added and the mixture is stirred at room temperature for 30 minutes. 622 Ltr of water is added to the reaction mixture and pH is adjusted between 10.5 and 11.5 with 25 % aqueous sodium hydroxide solution. Solid compound obtained is centrifuged and wet cake is kept as such for further reaction on the basis of moisture content. Wet weight = 95 Kg, Moisture Content = 33 %, Dried weight = 62 KgEXAMPLE 46-O-Methyl erythromycin- A (Clarithromycin)62 Kg of 6-O-Methyl erythromycin-9-Oxime is charged into a mixture of 434 Ltr of isopropyl alcohol and water (1: 1) and to it is added 38.80 Kg of sodium metabisulphite (203 mole) and then the mixture is heated to reflux for 6 to 8 hours. To the reaction mixture is charged water (620 Ltr) at ambient temperature and then the mixture is adjusted to pH about 10.5 to 11.5 by adding 25% aqueous sodium hydroxide solution and stirred for further 1 hour. White solid crude product is centrifuged, washed with water (300 Ltr), dried at 65° to 75⁰C for 8 hours to give 40 Kg of crude Clarithromycin which on re- crystallization with chloroform isopropyl alcohol mixture provided 20 Kg of Clarithromycin (Form II). 
SYNEP 0041355; US 4331803J Antibiot 1984,37(2),187-189

The methylation of 2′-O,N-bis(benzyloxycarbonyl)-N-demethylerythromycin A (I) with methyl iodide and KOH or NaHI in DMSO-dimethoxyethane gives the 6-O-methyl derivative (II), which is deprotected by hydrogenation with H2 over Pd/C in ethanol acetic acid affording 6-O-methyl-N-demethylerythromycin A (III). Finally, this compound is methylated with formaldehyde under reductive conditions (H2-Pd/C) in ethanol/acetic acid. 
CLIP 

2 Clarithromycin. Initial attempts of making clarithromycin (2) from erythromycin (1) by methylation of 8 gave approximately equal amounts of 2 and 10 by methylation at O-6 and O-11, respectively (Scheme 2, route A).[28–30] This allowed 2 to be obtained in approximately 39% yield, but it contained a small impurity of di-O-methylated 9. To improve the yields and obtain 2 in pure form, other alternatives were explored. During methylation of analogues of 8 it was observed that the conformation of the macrocyclic core plays an important role for the regioselectivity of the O-methylation.[31] As oximes are readilyhydrolysed and may have different conformations than ketone 8, oximes 11 and 13 were subjected to methylation. Interestingly, methylation of 13, but not of 11, proved to be highly selective for O-6 and provided 14 in 86% yield (Scheme2 route B); an observation which supports that 13 populates different conformations compared to 8 and 11 under the methylation conditions.[31] Compound 14 was then hydrogenated with Pd/C to deprotect the two benzyloxycarbonyl groups and the 2-chlorobenzyl group. The N-methylamine was then methylated by reductive amination and the oxime was deprotected by hydrolysis to provide clarithromycin (2). This procedure was further modified for process-scale synthesis so that clarithromycin (2) could be obtained in 70% yield starting from oxime 11 without the isolation of any intermediate.[32][28] M. Shigeo, T. Yoko, W. Yoshiaki, O. Sadafumi, J. Antibiot. 1984, 37, 187 – 189. [29] Y. Watanabe, T. Adachi, T. Asaka, M. Kashimura, S. Morimoto, Heterocycles 1990, 31, 2121 – 2124. [30] E. H. Flynn, H. W. Murphy, R. E. McMahon, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1955, 77, 3104 – 3106. [31] Y. Watanabe, S. Morimoto, T. Adachi, M. Kashimura, T. Asaka, J. Antibiot. 1993, 46, 647 – 660.32] R. A. Dominguez, M. D. C. C. Rodriguez, L. . D. Tejo, R. N. Rib, J. S. Cebrin, J. I. B. Bilbao, 2003, US6642364B2.

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19. ReferencesAllevi, P. et al.: Bioorg. Med. Chem. (BMECEP) 7, 12, 2749 (1999)Watanabe, Y. et al.: Heterocycles (HTCYAM) 31, 12, 2121 (1990).EP 158 467 (Taisho Pharmaceutical Co.; 22.3.1985; J-prior. 6.4.1984).EP 272 110 (Taisho Pharmaceutical Co.; 16.12.1987; J-prior. 17.12.1986).US 2 001 037 015 (Teva Pharm.; 15.12.2000; USA-prior. 29.2.2000).KR 2 000 043 839 (Hanmi Pharm.; ROK-prior. 29.12.1998).EP 1 150 990 (Hanmi Pharm.; 7.11.2001; ROK-prior. 29.12.1998)EP 41 355 (Taisho Pharmaceutical Co.; 27.5.1981; J-prior. 4.6.1980).Preparation of O,N-dicarbobenzoxy-N-demethylerythromycin:Flynn, E. H. et al.: J. Am. Chem. Soc. (JACSAT) 77, 3104 (1955).Process for preparation of erythromycin A oxime:US 5 808 017 (Abbott; 15.9.1998; USA-prior. 10.4.1996).Alternative synthesis of clarithromycin:Liao, G.; Zhang, G.; He, T.: Zhongguo Kangshengsu Zazhi (ZKZAEY) 27, 3, 148 (2002) (in Chinese).EP 1 134 229 (Hanmi Pharmac. Co.; 19.9.2001; ROK-prior. 15.3.2000).Crystal form 0 of clarithromycin:The Merck Index, 13th Ed., 2362, p. 408.US 5 945 405 (Abbott; 31.8.1999; USA-prior. 17.1.1997).

External links

• “Clarithromycin”. Drug Information Portal. U.S. National Library of Medicine.
• US patent 4331803, Watanabe Y, Morimoto S, Omura S, “Novel erythromycin compounds”, issued 1981-05-19, assigned to Taisho Pharmaceutical
• “FDA review finds additional data supports the potential for increased long-term risks with antibiotic clarithromycin (Biaxin) in patients with heart disease” (PDF). FDA Drug Safety Communication.

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